On this blog i will explore genius and geniality concepts, talented child and adults, polymaths, multipotentialite, multipods and other similar denominations. Mostly, i would like to learn about the potential hidden within each of us.
Showing posts with label Charles Spearman. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Charles Spearman. Show all posts
Thursday, 26 November 2015
Raymond B. Cattell
Raymond B. Cattell (March 20, 1905 - February 2, 1998) it is an British and American Psychologist, he is credited with developing an influential theory of personality, creating new methods for statistical analysis, and developing the theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence.
Student of: Spearman
Time Period: Current Efforts
Education
University College, London, B.S. with first-class honors in chemistry (1921-1924)
King’s College, Ph.D. in psychology (1924-1929)
University College, London, masters in education (1932); honorary doctor of science (1939)
Career
Exeter University, Lecturer in Psychology (1927-1932)
Advisory Psychologist, Dartington Hall progressive school (1927-1932)
Director, City of Leicester Child Guidance Clinic (1932-1936)
Columbia University, Research Associate (1937) (A position offered to him by E. L. Thorndike)
Clark University, G. Stanley Hall Professor of Genetic Psychology (1938-1941)
Harvard University, lecturer (1941-1945)
University of Illinois, Research Professor of Psychology (1945-1973)
First president of the Society for Multivariate Experimental Psychology (1960 and 1961)
Director, Institute for Research on Morality and Adjustment, Boulder, Colorado (1974-1978)
University of Hawaii and Hawaii School of Professional Psychology, adjunct professorships (1978- )
Numerous awards, including: Educational Testing Service Award for Distinguished Service to Measurement (1982); Dobzhansky Memorial Award of the Behavior Genetics Association (1986); Lewis M. Terman and Maude A. Merrill Award, Riverside Publishing Company (1994); Lifetime Contribution Award, Division 5 of the American Psychological Association (1997); Honorary doctorates from the Hawaii School of Professional Psychology (1986) and the Forest Institute of Professional Psychology (1987). Cattell was also offered the American Psychological Foundation Gold Medal Award for Lifetime Achievement in the Science of Psychology (1997) but declined the award after a controversy.
Major Contributions
The Cattell-Horn Theory of Fluid and Crystallized Intelligences
Application of advanced statistical techniques to the study of intelligence
Author or co-author of more than 500 books and articles
Ideas and Interests
Raymond Bernard Cattell’s substantial contributions to psychology fall into three areas: He is credited with developing an influential theory of personality, creating new methods for statistical analysis, and developing the theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence, which was later elaborated by his most renowned student, John Horn. The Cattell-Horn theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence (R. B. Cattell, 1941, 1950; 1971; Horn, 1965; Horn & Cattell, 1966a, 1966b) proposes that general intelligence is actually a conglomeration of perhaps 100 abilities working together in various ways in different people to bring out different intelligences. Gf-Gc theory separates these abilities broadly into, first, two different sets of abilities that have quite different trajectories over the course of development from childhood through adulthood. Fluid abilities ( Gf ) drive the individual's ability to think and act quickly, solve novel problems, and encode short-term memories. They have been described as the source of intelligence that an individual uses when he or she doesn't already know what to do. Fluid intelligence is grounded in physiological efficiency, and is thus relatively independent of education and acculturation (Horn, 1967). The other factor, encompassing crystallized abilities ( Gc ), stems from learning and acculturation, and is reflected in tests of knowledge, general information, use of language (vocabulary) and a wide variety of acquired skills (Horn & Cattell, 1967). Personality factors, motivation and educational and cultural opportunity are central to its development, and it is only indirectly dependent on the physiological influences that mainly affect fluid abilities. Raymond Cattell held a hereditarian view of intelligence, arguing that the weight of the statistical evidence supports the idea that intelligence is largely determined by genetics. He also noted that individuals with higher IQs tend to have fewer children than individuals with lower IQs. Therefore, he suggested that it would be prudent for more intelligent people to be encouraged to have more children, and that less intelligent individuals should have fewer. Although hardly a new idea (see our profiles of Robert Yerkes, Charles Darwin and Francis Galton, as well as our related Hot Topic), these views excited a great deal of controversy (Horn, 2000). In 1997, the American Psychological Foundation decided to grant him the Gold Medal Award for Lifetime Achievement in the Science of Psychology, an honor that had been bestowed on only 12 other psychologists since the award was created in 1956. Some psychologists objected to this, alleging that some of Cattell’s views were racist. Cattell responded with an open letter the American Psychological Association (APA), asserting that some of the offending statements had been made when he was a young man in the 1930s, and that he had amended them in later years. He further contended that other controversial statements had been taken out of context and grossly misinterpreted (R. B. Cattell, 1997). Although many psychologists voiced their support for Cattell, the controversy was never fully resolved, as Cattell died only two months after he wrote his open letter (Gillis, 2000). Regardless of one’s perspective on this controversy, the unresolved nature of the events left a black mark on the history of psychology that will never be removed. (Raymond Cattell is not related to James McKeen Cattell or Psyche Cattell).
Selected Publications
-Cattell, R.B. (1950). Personality: A systematic, theoretical, and factual study. New York: McGraw Hill
-Cattell, R.B. (Ed.). (1966). Handbook of multivariate experimental psychology (2nd ed.). Chicago: Rand McNally.
-Cattell, R.B. (1971). Abilities: Their structure, growth, and action. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
-Cattell, R.B. (1982). The inheritance of personality and ability: Research methods and findings. New York: Academic Press.
-Cattell, R.B. (1987). Intelligence: Its structure, growth, and action. New York: Elsevier.
References
-Cattell, R.B. (1941). Some theoretical issues in adult intelligence testng. Psychological Bulletin, 38, 592.
-Cattell, R. B. (1950). Personality. New York: McGraw-Hill.
-Cattell,R.B. (1971). Abilities: Their structure, growth and action. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
-Cattell, R. B. (1997). An open letter to the American Psychological Association.
-Gillis, J. (2000). Raymond Bernard Cattell Web Site. [Information retrieved July 24, 2006 from http://www.stthomasu.ca/%7Ejgillis/cattell.html].
-Horn, J.L. (1965). Fluid and crystallized intelligence: A factor analytic study of the structure among primary mental abilities. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Illinois.
-Horn, J. (2000). Cattell, Raymond B. In A. E. Kazdin (Ed), Encyclopedia of psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 55-57). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
-Horn, J. L., & Cattell, R. B. (1966a). Refinement and test of the theory of fluid and crystallized general intelligences. Journal of Educational Psychology, 57, 253-270.
-Horn, J. L., & Cattell, R. B. (1967). Age differences in fluid and crystallized intelligence. Acta Psychologica, 26, 107-129.
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Wednesday, 18 November 2015
Philip E. Vernon
Philip E. Vernon (1905-1987) is an Educational Psychologist who stated that intelligence it is the product of the interplay between genetic potentiality and environmental stimulation. He studied heredity and environment influences for any individual's intelligence .
Influences
Influenced by: Burt, Spearman
Time Period: Contemporary Explorations
Education
Cambridge University, B.A. with First Class Honours in physics, chemistry, physiology and psychology (1927)
St. John's College, Cambridge University, M.A. (1930); Ph.D (1931)
Postdoctoral fellowships at Yale and Harvard
University of London, DSc (1952)
University of Calgary, Honorary Doctor of Laws (1978)
Career
St. John’s College, Cambridge, research and teaching Fellow
Maudsley Hospital Child Guidance Clinic, London, psychologist
Jordan-Hill Training Centre, Glasgow, Head of psychology department
University of Glasgow, head of psychology department (appointed 1938)
Psychological Research Adviser to the Admiralty and War Office (WWII)
University of London Institute of Education, professor of educational psychology
University of London, professor of Psychology (appointed 1964)
University of Calgary, Alberta, Professor of Educational Psychology (appointed 1968)
Definition of Intelligence
“Intelligence A is the basic potentiality of the organism, whether animal or human, to learn and to adapt to its environment…Intelligence A is determined by the genes but is mediated mainly by the complexity and plasticity of the central nervous system…Intelligence B is the level of ability that a person actually shows in behavior—cleverness, the efficiency and complexity of perceptions, learning, thinking , and problem solving. This is not genetic…Rather, it is the product of the interplay between genetic potentiality and environmental stimulation…I have suggested that we should a third usage to Hebb’s Intelligence A and B, namely Intelligence C, which stands for the score or IQ obtained from a particular test (Vernon, 1979, pp. 10, 20).”
Major Contributions
Hierarchical group-factor theory of the structure of cognitive abilities
Author of 14 books and approximately 200 journal articles
Ideas & Interests
Philip Ewart Vernon’s contributions to the psychological literature were many and varied. His dissertation focused on the psychology of musical appreciation and auditory perception, but shortly after finishing his Ph.D. he began work with Harvard’s Gordon Allport on the study of expressive movement and the development of an instrument to measure personality-related values (Allport & Vernon, 1931; 1932). A revised edition of the Allport-Vernon Study of Values (SOV) is still widely used by psychologists more than 70 years after its initial publication (P. A. Vernon, 1994). Vernon’s interest in personality research remained strong throughout his career, but his work in intelligence and giftedness gradually gained precedence. He was a proponent of Donald Hebb’s theory of intelligence, which divided human intellectual ability into two categories: He called the biological substrate of human cognitive ability “Intelligence A.” When Intelligence A interacts with environmental influences, Intelligence B is generated. Vernon elaborated this definition to include Intelligence C, which is what manifests on tests of cognitive ability—the score or IQ obtained on a particular test. These distinctions are important for the scientific study of intelligence, and they were adopted by other researchers including the German-born British psychologist Hans Eysenck. Both theorists noted that Intelligence B is essentially immeasurable due to the large number of confounding variables. Intelligence A is not a concrete “thing” that can be measured, and can only be approached through measures that yield an index of Intelligence C. Intelligence tests, however, are imperfect and vary to the degree that they reflect Intelligence A or B (Jensen, 1994). Like many other prominent British intelligence theorists (e.g. Spearman and Burt), Vernon’s preferred research tool was factor analysis. In The Structure of Human Abilities (1950) Vernon presented his hierarchical group factor theory of the structure of human intellectual abilities. At the top of this hierarchy was Spearman’s general factor (g), which accounted for the largest source of the variance in intelligence. Below g were several major, minor and specific group factors. Because Vernon’s theory accounted for a general factor and group factors, it was seen as a reconciliation between Spearman’s two factor theory (which did not have group factors) and Thurstone’s multiple factor theory (which did not have a general factor.) In subsequent years, Vernon became interested in studying the relative contributions of heredity and environment, and he summarized his conclusions in two books: Intelligence and Cultural Environment (1969) and Intelligence: Heredity and Environment (1979). Although he acknowledged the pivotal role of environmental factors, Vernon’s research led him to conclude that approximately 60% of the variance in human intellectual ability is attributable to genetic contributions. He extended this argument to implicate genes in the observed racial differences in intelligence test scores (P.A. Vernon, 1994). This controversial line of research was pursued in future years by Hans Eysenck and his student Arthur Jensen.
Selected Publications
Vernon, P. E. (1940). The measurement of abilities. London: University of London Press.
Vernon, P. E. (1950). The structure of human abilities. London: Methuen.
Vernon, P. E. (1960). Intelligence and attainment tests. New York: Philosophical Library, Inc.
Vernon, P. E. (1969). Intelligence and cultural environment. London: Methuen.
Vernon, P. E. (Ed.). (1970). Creativity: Selected readings. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Vernon, P. E. (1979). Intelligence: Heredity and environment. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman & Company.
Vernon, P. E. (Ed.). (1987). Speed of information processing and intelligence. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Vernon, P. E., Adamson, G. & Vernon, D. F. (1977). The psychology and education of gifted children. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
References
Allport, G. W., & Vernon, P. E. (1931). Study of values: A scale for measuring the dominant interests n personality. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Allport, G. W., & Vernon, P. E. (1932). Studies in expressive movement. Ney York: Macmillan.
Biographical dictionary of psychology. (1997). New York: Routledge.
Jensen, A. R. (1994). Eysenck, Hans J. (1916-). In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.). Encyclopedia of human intelligence. New York: Macmillan.
Vernon, P. E. (1950). The structure of human abilities. London: Methuen.
Vernon, P. E. (1969). Intelligence and cultural environment. London: Methuen.
Vernon, P. E. (1979). Intelligence: Heredity and environment. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman & Company.
Vernon, P. A. (1994). Vernon, Philip Ewart (1905-1987). In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.). Encyclopedia of human intelligence (pp. 1115- 1117). New York: Macmillan.
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Influences
Influenced by: Burt, Spearman
Time Period: Contemporary Explorations
Education
Cambridge University, B.A. with First Class Honours in physics, chemistry, physiology and psychology (1927)
St. John's College, Cambridge University, M.A. (1930); Ph.D (1931)
Postdoctoral fellowships at Yale and Harvard
University of London, DSc (1952)
University of Calgary, Honorary Doctor of Laws (1978)
Career
St. John’s College, Cambridge, research and teaching Fellow
Maudsley Hospital Child Guidance Clinic, London, psychologist
Jordan-Hill Training Centre, Glasgow, Head of psychology department
University of Glasgow, head of psychology department (appointed 1938)
Psychological Research Adviser to the Admiralty and War Office (WWII)
University of London Institute of Education, professor of educational psychology
University of London, professor of Psychology (appointed 1964)
University of Calgary, Alberta, Professor of Educational Psychology (appointed 1968)
Definition of Intelligence
“Intelligence A is the basic potentiality of the organism, whether animal or human, to learn and to adapt to its environment…Intelligence A is determined by the genes but is mediated mainly by the complexity and plasticity of the central nervous system…Intelligence B is the level of ability that a person actually shows in behavior—cleverness, the efficiency and complexity of perceptions, learning, thinking , and problem solving. This is not genetic…Rather, it is the product of the interplay between genetic potentiality and environmental stimulation…I have suggested that we should a third usage to Hebb’s Intelligence A and B, namely Intelligence C, which stands for the score or IQ obtained from a particular test (Vernon, 1979, pp. 10, 20).”
Major Contributions
Hierarchical group-factor theory of the structure of cognitive abilities
Author of 14 books and approximately 200 journal articles
Ideas & Interests
Philip Ewart Vernon’s contributions to the psychological literature were many and varied. His dissertation focused on the psychology of musical appreciation and auditory perception, but shortly after finishing his Ph.D. he began work with Harvard’s Gordon Allport on the study of expressive movement and the development of an instrument to measure personality-related values (Allport & Vernon, 1931; 1932). A revised edition of the Allport-Vernon Study of Values (SOV) is still widely used by psychologists more than 70 years after its initial publication (P. A. Vernon, 1994). Vernon’s interest in personality research remained strong throughout his career, but his work in intelligence and giftedness gradually gained precedence. He was a proponent of Donald Hebb’s theory of intelligence, which divided human intellectual ability into two categories: He called the biological substrate of human cognitive ability “Intelligence A.” When Intelligence A interacts with environmental influences, Intelligence B is generated. Vernon elaborated this definition to include Intelligence C, which is what manifests on tests of cognitive ability—the score or IQ obtained on a particular test. These distinctions are important for the scientific study of intelligence, and they were adopted by other researchers including the German-born British psychologist Hans Eysenck. Both theorists noted that Intelligence B is essentially immeasurable due to the large number of confounding variables. Intelligence A is not a concrete “thing” that can be measured, and can only be approached through measures that yield an index of Intelligence C. Intelligence tests, however, are imperfect and vary to the degree that they reflect Intelligence A or B (Jensen, 1994). Like many other prominent British intelligence theorists (e.g. Spearman and Burt), Vernon’s preferred research tool was factor analysis. In The Structure of Human Abilities (1950) Vernon presented his hierarchical group factor theory of the structure of human intellectual abilities. At the top of this hierarchy was Spearman’s general factor (g), which accounted for the largest source of the variance in intelligence. Below g were several major, minor and specific group factors. Because Vernon’s theory accounted for a general factor and group factors, it was seen as a reconciliation between Spearman’s two factor theory (which did not have group factors) and Thurstone’s multiple factor theory (which did not have a general factor.) In subsequent years, Vernon became interested in studying the relative contributions of heredity and environment, and he summarized his conclusions in two books: Intelligence and Cultural Environment (1969) and Intelligence: Heredity and Environment (1979). Although he acknowledged the pivotal role of environmental factors, Vernon’s research led him to conclude that approximately 60% of the variance in human intellectual ability is attributable to genetic contributions. He extended this argument to implicate genes in the observed racial differences in intelligence test scores (P.A. Vernon, 1994). This controversial line of research was pursued in future years by Hans Eysenck and his student Arthur Jensen.
Selected Publications
Vernon, P. E. (1940). The measurement of abilities. London: University of London Press.
Vernon, P. E. (1950). The structure of human abilities. London: Methuen.
Vernon, P. E. (1960). Intelligence and attainment tests. New York: Philosophical Library, Inc.
Vernon, P. E. (1969). Intelligence and cultural environment. London: Methuen.
Vernon, P. E. (Ed.). (1970). Creativity: Selected readings. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Vernon, P. E. (1979). Intelligence: Heredity and environment. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman & Company.
Vernon, P. E. (Ed.). (1987). Speed of information processing and intelligence. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Vernon, P. E., Adamson, G. & Vernon, D. F. (1977). The psychology and education of gifted children. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
References
Allport, G. W., & Vernon, P. E. (1931). Study of values: A scale for measuring the dominant interests n personality. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Allport, G. W., & Vernon, P. E. (1932). Studies in expressive movement. Ney York: Macmillan.
Biographical dictionary of psychology. (1997). New York: Routledge.
Jensen, A. R. (1994). Eysenck, Hans J. (1916-). In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.). Encyclopedia of human intelligence. New York: Macmillan.
Vernon, P. E. (1950). The structure of human abilities. London: Methuen.
Vernon, P. E. (1969). Intelligence and cultural environment. London: Methuen.
Vernon, P. E. (1979). Intelligence: Heredity and environment. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman & Company.
Vernon, P. A. (1994). Vernon, Philip Ewart (1905-1987). In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.). Encyclopedia of human intelligence (pp. 1115- 1117). New York: Macmillan.
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Wednesday, 11 November 2015
Cyril L. Burt
Cyril L. Burt (March 3, 1883 - October 10, 1971) was a British Educational Psychologist, investigated differences in intelligence among social classes, gender and race, and the intelligence on separated twins. It was because his research that we discovered later why the children from poorer family gain knowledge slower than ones from middle class and up, and the Ericsson study of 10.000 hours of mastery was indirectly inspired by. He also helped women to fight the gender disparity using a part of his research.
Influences
Student of: McDougall
Influenced by: Galton, Spearman
Students: Eysenck
Influenced: Jensen, Vernon
Time Period: Contemporary Explorations
Education
Oxford Greats Course, Jesus College, Oxford, (1902-1907)
Teachers' Diploma, Jesus College, Oxford (1908)
Studied psychology under Oswald Külpe at the University of Würzburg, Germany (Summer, 1908)
Career
Lecturer in Experimental Psychology, University of Liverpool (1908-1913)
Chief Psychologist, London County Council (1913-1932)
Professor of Educational Psychology, London Day Training Centre (1924-1932)
Charles Spearman Chair of Psychology, University College, London (1932-1950)
First psychologist to be knighted (1946)
Editor and co-editor, British Journal of Statistical Psychology (1947-1963)
Published more than 200 articles after his retirement from teaching (1950-1971)
First British subject to win the (American) Thorndike Prize, (1971)
President of British Psychological Society (1942)
Definition of Intelligence
"…[intelligence] denotes, first of all, a quality that is intellectual and not emotional or moral: in measuring it we try to rule out the effects of the child's zeal, interest, industry, and the like. Secondly, it denotes a general capacity, a capacity that enters into everything the child says or does or thinks; any want of 'intelligence' will therefore be revealed to some degree in almost all that he attempts; a weakness in some limited or specialized ability-for example, in the ability to speak or to read, to learn or to calculate-is of itself by no means a sign of defective intelligence. Thirdly, intelligence is by definition an innate capacity: hence a lack of it is not necessarily proved by a lack of educational knowledge or skill" (Burt, 1957, p. 64-65).
Major Contributions
Founded the field of Educational Psychology in Great Britain by creating and implementing a system for identifying mentally retarded students
Helped to establish the Eleven-Plus testing program in Great Britain
Helped to expand the statistical technique of factor analysis
Advocated for the hereditarian position: He is famous (and notorious) for his conclusions about the intelligence of identical twins reared apart
Investigated differences in intelligence among social classes, gender and race
Published nine books and more than three hundred articles, lectures and book chapters
Ideas & Interests
Sir Cyril Burt remains one of the most complex and intriguing figures in the history of intelligence testing. He was a pioneer of educational psychology in England and was one of the most respected and honored psychologists of his time. However, he had controversial ideas regarding the heritability of intelligence, and there is ample evidence that he used fraudulent data to support his views (Scarr, 1994). Throughout Cyril Burt's lifetime he remained committed to proving that intelligence is primarily and inherited characteristic. His long research career began in 1909 with a study comparing the intelligence of boys enrolled in an elite preparatory academy with the intelligence of boys attending a regular school.* To control for environmental influences, he chose measures (such as mirror drawing) that were unlikely to have been learned during the students' lifetimes. Since the prep school students scored higherr than the other students, he concluded that they had more innate intelligence. Moreover, he noted that the fathers of the prep school boys were more successful than the fathers the other boys. He interpreted this to mean that the prep school boys had benefited from their fathers' superior genetic endowments (Fancher, 1985). Burt did not believe that 100% of intelligence is inherited. In fact, he acknowledged that environmental influences are important. However, he argued that even environmental influences can have genetic causes. In 1922 he wrote:
That children of better social status succeed better with the Binet- Simon scale is not necessarily an objection to that scale; nor is it necessarily a ground for constructing separate norms: for, by birth as well as by home training, children who are superior in social status may be equally superior in genral ability. Conversely, if a child proves defective according to a scale that is otherwise authentic, the mere fact that his family is poor and his dwelling a hovel does not of itself condone his deficiency. His parents' home may be mean precisely because their hereditary intelligence is mean. Whether poverty and its accompaniments affect the child's performances in any direct fashion-whether, for example, in the Binet-Simon tests a child that inherits an abundance of natural ability may be handicapped through a lack of cultural opportunities-is a further and a separate issue (Burt, 1922, p. 192). Later in Burt's life he would be accused of using fraudulent twin data to support the primacy of genetics over envirnoment. Between 1943 and 1966 he published a series of articles on the intelligence of identical twins who had been raised in different homes. Every article confirmed that each set twins' intelligence test scores were extremely similar. After Burt's death critics pointed out several problems with these articles, including: The raw data supporting his results had either disappeared or had never existed, an inability to confirm that his research assistants were indeed real people, extremely unlikely similarities in the correlation coefficients of IQ scores across studies, inconsistencies in the numbers of twins he reported using, and the implausibility of finding 53 sets of identical twins who had been reared apart. Although Burt is famous for his controversial hereditarian views, he took precisely the opposite stance on the issue of juvenile delinquency. Although Burt's family was middleclass, he grew up in a working class area and many of his boyhood friends were from poor families (Fancher, 1985). He was therefore made keenly aware of the environmental conditions which might lead to social and legal problems. While lecturing at Liverpool, he spent some time living in the University Settlement, a housing project on the on the outskirts of a slum. The settlement had been created for the specific purpose of exposing researchers to slum conditions. Burt came away from this experience convinced that juvenile delinquency was not a hereditary blight, but an environmental one. In The Young Delinquent, he lamented that "contagion is all too often mistaken for heredity" (Burt, 1925). In 1926 Burt began advocating for a national testing program that could identify bright children from all socioeconomic levels. He believed that this would establish a meritocracy, giving economically disadvantaged children educational opportunities that they would not otherwise receive. However, since he believed that economically disadvantaged children were also more likely to be genetically disadvantaged, he was convinced that the number of bright lower-class students identified would necessarily be much smaller than the number of bright upper class students. (Fancher, 1985) His proposed testing program was implemented, and a version of it is used in the United Kingdom to this day. Since Burt believed that intelligence is not fixed until children are approximately eleven years old, he suggested that all British students be tested at this age. Results of the "Eleven-Plus" exam would be used to sift students into grammar schools (for the high scorers) or modern schools (for the rest). These school placements were permanent. The Eleven-Plus program proved to be a double-edged sword: Since universities required grammar school training for admission, many lower-class youth received educational opportunities that they might not otherwise have enjoyed. However, most students were placed in the modern schools--ending forever their chances of receiving a university education. (Fancher, 1985). Burt also had environmentalist leanings on the issue of intelligence and race. Like many psychologists of his time, he believed that the European races were intellectually superior to the so-called "savage races". However, he did not attribute this superiority entirely to genetics (Hearnshaw, 1979). In a 1912 Eugenics Review article he stated: "In the case of the individual we found the influence of heredity large and indisputable; in the case of the race, small and controversial." (Burt, 1912) Burt was also interested in gender differences in intelligence. One of his earliest studies investigated the differences in the perceptual and motor skills, reasoning ability, and emotionality of male and female schoolchildren. His research team came to the surprising conclusion that "with few exceptions innate sex differences in mental constitution are astonishingly small--far smaller than common belief and common practice would lead us to expect" (Burt & Moore, 1912). Later in his career he offered evidence from a variety of sources pointing to the superior linguistic capabilities of girls, and suggested that at various periods in their development, girls are intellectually superior to their male counterparts. He noted however, that this superiority is transient, and that the overall cognitive differences between boys and girls are negligible. (Burt, 1922, p. 193). When viewed within the social context extant during this stage of Burt's career, it is reasonable to say that his work helped women to achieve gender parity within the school system. (Hearnshaw, 1979). *His experimental design did not actually allow for a direct comparison of the two groups. His conclusions were based on interpretations of data from within each group.
Selected Publications:
Burt, C. (1909). Experimental tests of general intelligence. British Journal of Psychology, 3, 94-177.
Burt, C. (1921). Mental and scholastic tests. London: P.S. King and Son.
Burt, C. (1935). The subnormal mind. London: Oxford University Press.
Burt C. (1940). The factors of the mind: An introduction to factor analysis in psychology. London: University of London Press.
Burt, C. (1957). The causes and treatments of backwardness (4th ed.). London: University of London Press.
Burt, C. (1975). The gifted child. New York: Wiley.
References:
Burt, C.L. (1912). The inheritance of mental characteristics. Eugenics Review, 4, 168-200.
Burt, C.L. (1925). The young delinquent. London: University of London Press.
Burt, C. (1957). The causes and treatments of backwardness (4th ed.). London: University of London Press.
Burt, C.L., & Moore, R.C. (1912). The mental differences between the sexes. Journal of Experimental Ped., 1, 273-84, 355-88.
Fancher, R.E. (1985). The intelligence men: Makers of the IQ controversy. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
Hearnshaw, L.S. (1979). Cyril Burt, Psychologist. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univerisity Press.
Scarr, S. (1994). Burt, Cyril L. In R.J. Sternberg (Ed.), Encyclopedia of intelligence (Vol. 1). (pp. 231-234). New York: Macmillan.
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J.P. Guilford
J.P. Guilford (1897-1987) was an advocate of researching individual differences, some of you must also heard of his System of Intellect (SI) cube representation.
Influences
Student of: Titchener
Influenced by: Spearman
Students: Hunt
Time Period: Contemporary Explorations
Education:
University of Nebraska, B.A., M.A. (1917-1918, 1919-1924)
Cornell University, Ph.D. (1924-1927)
Career:
Teacher Grades 1 through 8 outside Phillips, Nebraska (1915-1916)
Teacher Grades 5 through 8 Phillips, Nebraska (1916-1917)
U. S. Army Private (1918-1919)
Teacher Grades 7 and 8 Hooper, Nebraska (Spring 1919)
Acting Superintendent of Schools (Summer 1919)
Interim Director for University of Nebraska Psychological Clinic (1919-1921)
Instructor at University of Illinois (1926-1927)
Assistant Professor at University of Kansas (1927-1928)
Associate Professor at University of Nebraska (1928-1932)
Professor at University of Nebraska (1932-1940)
Director of the Bureau of Instructional Research (1938-1940)
Teacher at the University of Southern California (Summer 1938, 1939)
Professor at University of South California (1940-1967)
Director of Psychological Research #3 Santa Ana Army Air Base (1942-1946)
President or member of numerous organizations and societies
Editorial board member for scholarly journals such as the American Journal of Psychology and Psychological Review
Definition of Intelligence: A systematic collection of abilities or functions for the processing of information of different kinds in various ways.
Contribution:
Experimental Psychology including attention and visual perception, learning and memory, and experimental esthetics
Statistical Psychology with regard to test theory and evaluation, factor analysis, psychophysics, and scaling
Mental abilities including knowledge gained from factor analytic studies, and the theoretical model of the structure of intellect
Personality theory and measurement
Author/co-author of over 25 books, 30 tests, and 300 journal articles
Ideas & Interests
During Guilford’s time as interim director of the Psychology Clinic, he became interested in the dissimilarities of children’s abilities in different areas. He came to believe intelligence was not one monolithic, global attribute but a combination of multiple abilities. This is what was to be the dominant focus of his professional career—individual differences. Guilford believed there were many relatively independent mental abilities factors. With WWII, Guilford was able to apply his factor analytic methodology to study these mental abilities. Because of his research on U.S. Army Air Corps during the war, he and his collaborators were able to identify and measure twenty-five important mental ability factors. Further, Guilford believed societies quest for easily objectifiable testing and scoring had directed away from measuring important qualities that individuals posses. Operationally, intelligence was defined as the ability to read, compute mathematically, and perform other similar subjects. According to Guilford, these types of intelligence tests revealed little about a person’s creative nature. After researching available intelligence tests, he determined many do not inter-correlate perfectly because each test emphasized a different primary ability. Guilford concluded individuals differ in a continuous manner for each primary ability. By the 1950’s, Guilford felt there needed to be a system developed to classify the new mental abilities being discovered. Traditional models prior to Guilford proposed a single universal ability at the top of a hierarchal pattern. In 1955, the first version of the Structure of Intellect (SI) model was presented. This model became Guilford’s main focus of research. The SI model includes a Content dimension, Products dimension, and Operations dimension. It is represented as a cube with each of the three dimensions occupying one side. Each ability is defined by a conjunction of the three categories, occupying one cell in the three-dimensional figure. There are five categories of Content including visual, auditory, symbolic, semantic, and behavioral. Six categories exist in the Products dimension including units, classes, relations, systems, transformation, and implications. The five kinds of Operations include cognition, memory, divergent production, convergent production, and evaluation. Guilford’s SI Theory is an open system such that it allows for newly discovered categories to be added in any of three directions. Many of the abilities are believed to be correlated with each other. The 5 x 6 x 5 figure provides at least 150 possible abilities, with over 100 having been empirically verified. The model also suggests where new abilities may be discovered based on existing abilities. Because of Guilford’s contributions during his career, intelligence was shown to be incredibly complex. No longer was intelligence a monolithic global trait considered innate and absolute.
Notable Publications:
Psychometric Methods (1936)
Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education (1942)
Printed Classification Tests (1947)
General Psychology (1939)
Fields of Psychology (1940)
Personality (1959)
Prediction of Categories from Measurements (1949)
Sources
Guilford, J. P. (1950) Creativity. The American Psychologist, 5,444-454.
Michael, W. B., Comrey, A. L., & Fruchter, B. (1963). J. P. Guilford: Psychologist and teacher. Psychological Bulletin, 60, 1-34.
Guilford, J.P. (1982). Cognitive psychology's ambiguities: Some suggested remedies. Psychological Review, 89, 48-59.
Guilford, J.P. (1967). The Nature of Human Intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Comrey, A. L. (1993). Joy Paul Guilford 1897-1987 (pp. 199-210). In Biographical Memoirs V. 62. National Academy of Sciences: Washington, D.C.
Intelltheory.com
Influences
Student of: Titchener
Influenced by: Spearman
Students: Hunt
Time Period: Contemporary Explorations
Education:
University of Nebraska, B.A., M.A. (1917-1918, 1919-1924)
Cornell University, Ph.D. (1924-1927)
Career:
Teacher Grades 1 through 8 outside Phillips, Nebraska (1915-1916)
Teacher Grades 5 through 8 Phillips, Nebraska (1916-1917)
U. S. Army Private (1918-1919)
Teacher Grades 7 and 8 Hooper, Nebraska (Spring 1919)
Acting Superintendent of Schools (Summer 1919)
Interim Director for University of Nebraska Psychological Clinic (1919-1921)
Instructor at University of Illinois (1926-1927)
Assistant Professor at University of Kansas (1927-1928)
Associate Professor at University of Nebraska (1928-1932)
Professor at University of Nebraska (1932-1940)
Director of the Bureau of Instructional Research (1938-1940)
Teacher at the University of Southern California (Summer 1938, 1939)
Professor at University of South California (1940-1967)
Director of Psychological Research #3 Santa Ana Army Air Base (1942-1946)
President or member of numerous organizations and societies
Editorial board member for scholarly journals such as the American Journal of Psychology and Psychological Review
Definition of Intelligence: A systematic collection of abilities or functions for the processing of information of different kinds in various ways.
Contribution:
Experimental Psychology including attention and visual perception, learning and memory, and experimental esthetics
Statistical Psychology with regard to test theory and evaluation, factor analysis, psychophysics, and scaling
Mental abilities including knowledge gained from factor analytic studies, and the theoretical model of the structure of intellect
Personality theory and measurement
Author/co-author of over 25 books, 30 tests, and 300 journal articles
Ideas & Interests
During Guilford’s time as interim director of the Psychology Clinic, he became interested in the dissimilarities of children’s abilities in different areas. He came to believe intelligence was not one monolithic, global attribute but a combination of multiple abilities. This is what was to be the dominant focus of his professional career—individual differences. Guilford believed there were many relatively independent mental abilities factors. With WWII, Guilford was able to apply his factor analytic methodology to study these mental abilities. Because of his research on U.S. Army Air Corps during the war, he and his collaborators were able to identify and measure twenty-five important mental ability factors. Further, Guilford believed societies quest for easily objectifiable testing and scoring had directed away from measuring important qualities that individuals posses. Operationally, intelligence was defined as the ability to read, compute mathematically, and perform other similar subjects. According to Guilford, these types of intelligence tests revealed little about a person’s creative nature. After researching available intelligence tests, he determined many do not inter-correlate perfectly because each test emphasized a different primary ability. Guilford concluded individuals differ in a continuous manner for each primary ability. By the 1950’s, Guilford felt there needed to be a system developed to classify the new mental abilities being discovered. Traditional models prior to Guilford proposed a single universal ability at the top of a hierarchal pattern. In 1955, the first version of the Structure of Intellect (SI) model was presented. This model became Guilford’s main focus of research. The SI model includes a Content dimension, Products dimension, and Operations dimension. It is represented as a cube with each of the three dimensions occupying one side. Each ability is defined by a conjunction of the three categories, occupying one cell in the three-dimensional figure. There are five categories of Content including visual, auditory, symbolic, semantic, and behavioral. Six categories exist in the Products dimension including units, classes, relations, systems, transformation, and implications. The five kinds of Operations include cognition, memory, divergent production, convergent production, and evaluation. Guilford’s SI Theory is an open system such that it allows for newly discovered categories to be added in any of three directions. Many of the abilities are believed to be correlated with each other. The 5 x 6 x 5 figure provides at least 150 possible abilities, with over 100 having been empirically verified. The model also suggests where new abilities may be discovered based on existing abilities. Because of Guilford’s contributions during his career, intelligence was shown to be incredibly complex. No longer was intelligence a monolithic global trait considered innate and absolute.
Notable Publications:
Psychometric Methods (1936)
Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education (1942)
Printed Classification Tests (1947)
General Psychology (1939)
Fields of Psychology (1940)
Personality (1959)
Prediction of Categories from Measurements (1949)
Sources
Guilford, J. P. (1950) Creativity. The American Psychologist, 5,444-454.
Michael, W. B., Comrey, A. L., & Fruchter, B. (1963). J. P. Guilford: Psychologist and teacher. Psychological Bulletin, 60, 1-34.
Guilford, J.P. (1982). Cognitive psychology's ambiguities: Some suggested remedies. Psychological Review, 89, 48-59.
Guilford, J.P. (1967). The Nature of Human Intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Comrey, A. L. (1993). Joy Paul Guilford 1897-1987 (pp. 199-210). In Biographical Memoirs V. 62. National Academy of Sciences: Washington, D.C.
Intelltheory.com
Anne Anastasi
Anne Anastasi (December 19, 1908-May 4, 2001) was an American Differential Psychologist, known as "test guru", did an extensive examination of issues related to test construction, test misuse, misinterpretation and cultural bias.
Influences
Student of: H. L. Hollingworth
Influenced by: Spearman
Time Period: Contemporary Explorations
Education:
Educated at home by her grandmother and a private tutor until age 9
Dropped out of high school after only two months
Two years at the Rhodes Preparatory School in Manhattan (1922-1923)
Entered Barnard College at the age of 15. Graduated at the age of 19 (A.B. in Psychology, 1928)
Columbia University (Ph.D. in Psychology, 1929)
Career:
Barnard College, Instructor in Psychology (1930-1939)
Queens College, Assistant Professor and Chairperson of the Psychology Department, (1939-1947)
Fordham University, Associate Professor of Psychology, (1947-1951); Professor (1951-1979); Professor Emeritus (and awarded Honorary Doctor of Science Degree, 1979)
President of the Eastern Psychological Association (1946-1947)
President of the APA Division 1, General Psychology (1956-1957)
President of the APA Division 5, Evaluation, Measurement and Statistics (1965-1966)
President of the American Psychological Foundation (1965-1967)
Third female president of the American Psychological Association (1972)
Definition of Intelligence
"Intelligence is not a single, unitary ability, but rather a composite of several functions. The term denotes that combination of abilities required for survival and advancement within a particular culture (Anastasi, 1992, p. 613). ”
Major Contributions:
Known as the "test guru"
Extensive examination of issues related to test construction, test misuse, misinterpretation and cultural bias
Argued against the strictly hereditarian position; emphasized the role of experiential, environmental and cultural influences on intelligence test scores
More than 150 publications, including two classic textbooks: Psychological Testing (1st edition 1954; 7th edition, 1996) and Differential Psychology (1st edition 1937; 4th edition, 1981)
Ideas and Interests
Anne Anastasi grew up in New York City, the only child in a small Sicilian family. Her father died when she was an infant, and she was raised by her mother, grandmother and uncle. Anastasi described her grandmother as a domineering woman who maintained stewardship over most issues in family life, including young Anne's education. She believed herself to be a true aristocrat, and categorized all those whom she met as either aristocrats or peasants (Anastasi, 1989) Anastasi's uncle was a man of superior classical education, but he was ill prepared for real-world employment. In contrast, Anastasi's mother was a practical, resourceful woman, and it was she who shouldered the burden of supporting the family (Reznikoff & Procidano, 2001; Sexton & Hogan, 1990). Anastasi believed that the juxtaposition of these three personalities might have been a reason for her later professional interest in the psychology of individual differences (Anastasi, 1989). Anastasi's grandmother disapproved of the boisterous neighborhood children, and insisted that she be educated at home (Anastasi, 1989). When she was nine years old, a private tutor convinced her grandmother to allow her to attend a public elementary school. Anastasi enjoyed her early schooling, but her high school experience was disappointing. The building was overcrowded, rundown and very far from her home. She dropped out after only two months (Anastasi, 1972). At the suggestion of a family friend, she decided to skip high school entirely. She spent two years preparing for the college entrance examinations, and was admitted to Barnard College at the age of fifteen (Anastasi, 1972; Reznikoff & Procidano, 2001; Sexton & Hogan, 1990). Anastasi entered college as a math major. During her sophomore year she enrolled in an elective psychology class taught by H.L. Hollingworth. His enthusiasm and intensity impressed her, as did his sharp criticisms of sloppy research practices (Anastasi, 1989; Sexton & Hogan, 1990). Later the same year, Anastasi read a Charles Spearman article on correlation coefficients, (Spearman, 1904) and realized that she did not need to abandon mathematics to pursue her emerging interest in psychology (Anastasi, 1972, 1989; Reznikoff & Procidano, 2001). She switched majors and completed a bachelor's degree in psychology at the age of nineteen. After graduation from Barnard, she entered Columbia University, requesting that her undergraduate work be accepted in lieu of a master's degree. She completed her doctorate in two years (Anastasi, 1972, 1989). Anne Anastasi's research focused on understanding and measuring the factors underlying the development of individual differences in psychological traits (Anastasi, 1972, 1989). She argued against the strictly hereditarian position, emphasizing the role of experiential and environmental influences on intelligence test scores and psychological development. She stressed that intelligence test scores are not pure measures of innate ability: ...not only does the nature of one's antecedent experiences affect the degree of differentiation of "intelligence" into distinct abilities, but it also affects the particular abilities that emerge, such as verbal, numerical, and spatial abilities. Thus, experiential factors affect not only the level of the individual's intellectual development, but also the very categories in terms of which his abilities may be identified (Anastasi, 1972). Anastasi believed that most claims about "culture-free" and "culture-fair" testing are untrue. She stressed that different cultures have different concepts of what an "intelligent person" is, and that traditional psychometric tests measure only those skills which are valued in academic and work circles within modern, industrialized social contexts. The dominant intelligence test paradigm presupposes that intelligence tests should assess the individual's ability to succeed in this environment. However, the value of these tests is ephemeral; new tests will have to be developed as society advances and new technology demands cultivation of different cognitive skills. Anastasi emphasized that there is an alternative to this testing model. Other assessments could be developed to measure "how well individuals have acquired skills and knowledge valued in [their own] culture." She believed that although both types of tests can be valid as intelligence tests, the way in which intelligence is defined would necessarily be different for each construct (Anastasi, 1981). Anastasi's research increased awareness of what intelligence tests should and should not be used for. She cautioned test users against misinterpreting results, emphasizing that intelligence is changeable over time, and that intelligence (not just intelligence test scores) can improve with experience. Therefore, intelligence test scores should never be used to label a student indelibly (Anastasi, 1992): Tests can serve a predictive function only insofar as they indicate to what extent the individual has acquired the prerequisite skills and knowledge for a designated criterion performance. What persons can accomplish in the future depends not only on their present intellectual status, as assessed by the test, but on their subsequent experience (Anastasi, 1981).According to Anastasi, intelligence tests can do three things:
-They permit a direct assessment of prerequisite intellectual skills demanded by many important tasks in our culture.
-They assess availability of a relevant store of knowledge or content also prerequisite for many educational and occupational tasks.
-They provide an indirect index of the extent to which the individual has developed effective learning strategies, problem-solving techniques and work habits and utilized them in the past. (Anastasi, 1981)
When intelligence test scores are used properly, they are valuable descriptive tools that allow teachers and counselors to determine a student's current level of academic performance. Although an intelligence test score cannot tell us why a student scored as he did, the score can make it easier to meet a student at his level, and to design educational experiences that will improve intelligence. (Anastasi, 1981).
Selected Publications
Anastasi, A. (1981). Differential psychology. (4th ed.). New York: Macmillan.
Anastasi, A. (1983). Psychological testing. In C.E. Walker (Ed.), Handbook of clinical psychology: Theory, research and practice (Vol.1, pp.420-444). Homewood, Ill: Dow-Jones Irwin.
Anastasi, A. (1983). What do intelligence tests measure? In S. B. Anderson & J. S. Helmick (Eds.), On educational testing: Intelligence, performance standards, test anxiety, and latent traits (pp.5-28). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Anastasi, A. (1984). Aptitude and achievement tests: The curious case of the indestructible strawperson. In B. S. Plake (Ed.), Social and technical issues in testing: Implications for test construction and usage (pp. 129-140).Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Anastasi, A. (1985). Psychological testing: Basic concepts and common misconceptions. In A. M. Rogers & C. J. Scheirer (Eds.), The G. Stanley Hall Lecture Series (Vol. 5, pp.87-120). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Anastasi, A. (1986). Intelligence as a quality of behavior. In R. J Sternberg & D. K. Detterman (Eds.), What is intelligence? Contemporary viewpoints on its nature and definition (pp. 19-21). Norwood NJ: Ablex.
Anastasi, A. (1996). Psychological testing (7th ed.). New York: Macmillian.
References
Anastasi, A. (1972). Reminiscences of a differential psychologist. In T. S. Krawiec (Ed.), The psychologists (pp.3-37). London: Oxford University Press.
Anastasi, A. (1981). Diverse effects of training on tests of academic intelligence. In B. F. Green (Ed.), Issues in testing: Coaching, disclosure, and ethnic bias. (pp.5-20). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Anastasi, A. (1989). Anne Anastasi. In G. Lindzey (Ed.), History of psychology in autobiography: Vol. 7. (pp.1-37). Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Anastasi, A. (1992). What counselors should know about the use and interpretation of psychological tests. Journal of Counseling and Development, 70 (5), 610-615.
Reznikoff, M., & Procidano, M. (2001). Anne Anastasi. American Psychologist, 56 (10), 816-817.
Sexton, V. S., & Hogan, J. D. (1990). Anne Anastasi. In A. N. O'Connell and N. F. Russo (Eds.), Women in psychology: A bio-bibliographic sourcebook. (pp.13-22). New York: Greenwood Press.
Spearman, C. (1904). "General intelligence" objectively determined and measured. American Journal of psychology, 15, 201-293.
intelltheory.com
Influences
Student of: H. L. Hollingworth
Influenced by: Spearman
Time Period: Contemporary Explorations
Education:
Educated at home by her grandmother and a private tutor until age 9
Dropped out of high school after only two months
Two years at the Rhodes Preparatory School in Manhattan (1922-1923)
Entered Barnard College at the age of 15. Graduated at the age of 19 (A.B. in Psychology, 1928)
Columbia University (Ph.D. in Psychology, 1929)
Career:
Barnard College, Instructor in Psychology (1930-1939)
Queens College, Assistant Professor and Chairperson of the Psychology Department, (1939-1947)
Fordham University, Associate Professor of Psychology, (1947-1951); Professor (1951-1979); Professor Emeritus (and awarded Honorary Doctor of Science Degree, 1979)
President of the Eastern Psychological Association (1946-1947)
President of the APA Division 1, General Psychology (1956-1957)
President of the APA Division 5, Evaluation, Measurement and Statistics (1965-1966)
President of the American Psychological Foundation (1965-1967)
Third female president of the American Psychological Association (1972)
Definition of Intelligence
"Intelligence is not a single, unitary ability, but rather a composite of several functions. The term denotes that combination of abilities required for survival and advancement within a particular culture (Anastasi, 1992, p. 613). ”
Major Contributions:
Known as the "test guru"
Extensive examination of issues related to test construction, test misuse, misinterpretation and cultural bias
Argued against the strictly hereditarian position; emphasized the role of experiential, environmental and cultural influences on intelligence test scores
More than 150 publications, including two classic textbooks: Psychological Testing (1st edition 1954; 7th edition, 1996) and Differential Psychology (1st edition 1937; 4th edition, 1981)
Ideas and Interests
Anne Anastasi grew up in New York City, the only child in a small Sicilian family. Her father died when she was an infant, and she was raised by her mother, grandmother and uncle. Anastasi described her grandmother as a domineering woman who maintained stewardship over most issues in family life, including young Anne's education. She believed herself to be a true aristocrat, and categorized all those whom she met as either aristocrats or peasants (Anastasi, 1989) Anastasi's uncle was a man of superior classical education, but he was ill prepared for real-world employment. In contrast, Anastasi's mother was a practical, resourceful woman, and it was she who shouldered the burden of supporting the family (Reznikoff & Procidano, 2001; Sexton & Hogan, 1990). Anastasi believed that the juxtaposition of these three personalities might have been a reason for her later professional interest in the psychology of individual differences (Anastasi, 1989). Anastasi's grandmother disapproved of the boisterous neighborhood children, and insisted that she be educated at home (Anastasi, 1989). When she was nine years old, a private tutor convinced her grandmother to allow her to attend a public elementary school. Anastasi enjoyed her early schooling, but her high school experience was disappointing. The building was overcrowded, rundown and very far from her home. She dropped out after only two months (Anastasi, 1972). At the suggestion of a family friend, she decided to skip high school entirely. She spent two years preparing for the college entrance examinations, and was admitted to Barnard College at the age of fifteen (Anastasi, 1972; Reznikoff & Procidano, 2001; Sexton & Hogan, 1990). Anastasi entered college as a math major. During her sophomore year she enrolled in an elective psychology class taught by H.L. Hollingworth. His enthusiasm and intensity impressed her, as did his sharp criticisms of sloppy research practices (Anastasi, 1989; Sexton & Hogan, 1990). Later the same year, Anastasi read a Charles Spearman article on correlation coefficients, (Spearman, 1904) and realized that she did not need to abandon mathematics to pursue her emerging interest in psychology (Anastasi, 1972, 1989; Reznikoff & Procidano, 2001). She switched majors and completed a bachelor's degree in psychology at the age of nineteen. After graduation from Barnard, she entered Columbia University, requesting that her undergraduate work be accepted in lieu of a master's degree. She completed her doctorate in two years (Anastasi, 1972, 1989). Anne Anastasi's research focused on understanding and measuring the factors underlying the development of individual differences in psychological traits (Anastasi, 1972, 1989). She argued against the strictly hereditarian position, emphasizing the role of experiential and environmental influences on intelligence test scores and psychological development. She stressed that intelligence test scores are not pure measures of innate ability: ...not only does the nature of one's antecedent experiences affect the degree of differentiation of "intelligence" into distinct abilities, but it also affects the particular abilities that emerge, such as verbal, numerical, and spatial abilities. Thus, experiential factors affect not only the level of the individual's intellectual development, but also the very categories in terms of which his abilities may be identified (Anastasi, 1972). Anastasi believed that most claims about "culture-free" and "culture-fair" testing are untrue. She stressed that different cultures have different concepts of what an "intelligent person" is, and that traditional psychometric tests measure only those skills which are valued in academic and work circles within modern, industrialized social contexts. The dominant intelligence test paradigm presupposes that intelligence tests should assess the individual's ability to succeed in this environment. However, the value of these tests is ephemeral; new tests will have to be developed as society advances and new technology demands cultivation of different cognitive skills. Anastasi emphasized that there is an alternative to this testing model. Other assessments could be developed to measure "how well individuals have acquired skills and knowledge valued in [their own] culture." She believed that although both types of tests can be valid as intelligence tests, the way in which intelligence is defined would necessarily be different for each construct (Anastasi, 1981). Anastasi's research increased awareness of what intelligence tests should and should not be used for. She cautioned test users against misinterpreting results, emphasizing that intelligence is changeable over time, and that intelligence (not just intelligence test scores) can improve with experience. Therefore, intelligence test scores should never be used to label a student indelibly (Anastasi, 1992): Tests can serve a predictive function only insofar as they indicate to what extent the individual has acquired the prerequisite skills and knowledge for a designated criterion performance. What persons can accomplish in the future depends not only on their present intellectual status, as assessed by the test, but on their subsequent experience (Anastasi, 1981).According to Anastasi, intelligence tests can do three things:
-They permit a direct assessment of prerequisite intellectual skills demanded by many important tasks in our culture.
-They assess availability of a relevant store of knowledge or content also prerequisite for many educational and occupational tasks.
-They provide an indirect index of the extent to which the individual has developed effective learning strategies, problem-solving techniques and work habits and utilized them in the past. (Anastasi, 1981)
When intelligence test scores are used properly, they are valuable descriptive tools that allow teachers and counselors to determine a student's current level of academic performance. Although an intelligence test score cannot tell us why a student scored as he did, the score can make it easier to meet a student at his level, and to design educational experiences that will improve intelligence. (Anastasi, 1981).
Selected Publications
Anastasi, A. (1981). Differential psychology. (4th ed.). New York: Macmillan.
Anastasi, A. (1983). Psychological testing. In C.E. Walker (Ed.), Handbook of clinical psychology: Theory, research and practice (Vol.1, pp.420-444). Homewood, Ill: Dow-Jones Irwin.
Anastasi, A. (1983). What do intelligence tests measure? In S. B. Anderson & J. S. Helmick (Eds.), On educational testing: Intelligence, performance standards, test anxiety, and latent traits (pp.5-28). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Anastasi, A. (1984). Aptitude and achievement tests: The curious case of the indestructible strawperson. In B. S. Plake (Ed.), Social and technical issues in testing: Implications for test construction and usage (pp. 129-140).Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Anastasi, A. (1985). Psychological testing: Basic concepts and common misconceptions. In A. M. Rogers & C. J. Scheirer (Eds.), The G. Stanley Hall Lecture Series (Vol. 5, pp.87-120). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Anastasi, A. (1986). Intelligence as a quality of behavior. In R. J Sternberg & D. K. Detterman (Eds.), What is intelligence? Contemporary viewpoints on its nature and definition (pp. 19-21). Norwood NJ: Ablex.
Anastasi, A. (1996). Psychological testing (7th ed.). New York: Macmillian.
References
Anastasi, A. (1972). Reminiscences of a differential psychologist. In T. S. Krawiec (Ed.), The psychologists (pp.3-37). London: Oxford University Press.
Anastasi, A. (1981). Diverse effects of training on tests of academic intelligence. In B. F. Green (Ed.), Issues in testing: Coaching, disclosure, and ethnic bias. (pp.5-20). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Anastasi, A. (1989). Anne Anastasi. In G. Lindzey (Ed.), History of psychology in autobiography: Vol. 7. (pp.1-37). Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Anastasi, A. (1992). What counselors should know about the use and interpretation of psychological tests. Journal of Counseling and Development, 70 (5), 610-615.
Reznikoff, M., & Procidano, M. (2001). Anne Anastasi. American Psychologist, 56 (10), 816-817.
Sexton, V. S., & Hogan, J. D. (1990). Anne Anastasi. In A. N. O'Connell and N. F. Russo (Eds.), Women in psychology: A bio-bibliographic sourcebook. (pp.13-22). New York: Greenwood Press.
Spearman, C. (1904). "General intelligence" objectively determined and measured. American Journal of psychology, 15, 201-293.
intelltheory.com
Tuesday, 10 November 2015
Charles Spearman
Charles Spearman (1863-1945) was an English Psychologist, studied with Wundt, teaches Cattell and Wechsler and influenced many of the modern exponents of Psychology. Invented statistical technique known as factor analysis, his research preceded many of our actual testing ideas.
Student of: Wundt
Influenced by: Galton
Students: R. B. Cattell, Wechsler
Influenced: Anastasi, Guilford, Vernon, Burt, Detterman
Time Period: The Great Schools' Influence
Education:
Studied engineering in college
University of Leipzig , Ph.D. in experimental psychology (under Wilhelm Wundt) (1906)
Career:
Published “General Intelligence’ Objectively Determined and Measured” (1904)
University College, London, Reader in Experimental Psychology (1907-1911); Grote Professor of Mind and Logic (successor to William McDougal) (1911-1928); Professor of Psychology (1928-1932) (Succeeded by Cyril Burt)
Numerous honors and awards, including: Fellow of the Royal Society ( Great Britain) and member of the National Academy of Sciences ( U.S.A.)
Major Contributions:
“First systematic psychometrician” and father of classical test theory (Jensen, 1994)
Pioneer of the statistical technique called factor analysis
Discovered a general factor (g) in correlations among mental tests
Definition of Intelligence
“As regards the delicate matter of estimating ‘Intelligence,’ the guiding principle has been not to make any a priori assumptions as to what kind of mental activity may be thus termed with greatest propriety. Provisionally, at any rate, the aim was empirically to examine all the various abilities having any prima facie claims to such title, ascertaining their relations to one another and to other functions (Spearman, 1904, p. 249-250).”
Ideas and Interests
Charles Spearman started his psychology career relatively late in life, beginning his Ph.D. studies at age 34 and accepting his first university position at age 42. Yet, his technical and theoretical contributions to the development of intelligence research as a scientific enterprise cannot be overstated. He was the first to offer a tenable psychometric definition of intelligence, and is therefore considered to be the father of classical test theory (Jensen, 1994). In a famous article, “General Intelligence’ Objectively Determined and Measured” (1904), Spearman proposed the idea that intelligent behavior is generated by a single, unitary quality within the human mind or brain. Spearman derived this theoretical entity, called the general factor, or simply g, through a new statistical technique that analyzed the correlations among a set of variables. This technique, called factor analysis, demonstrated that scores on all mental tests are positively correlated; this offered compelling evidence that all intelligent behavior is derived from one metaphorical pool of mental energy. Although proponents of multiple intelligence theory reject this interpretation, factor analysis remains one of the most important tools in 21 st century intelligence research. Like his predecessors James McKeen Cattell and Francis Galton, Spearman had been a student in William Wundt’s experimental psychology laboratory, and like Cattell and Galton, he found the idea of a single, biologically-based source of human intelligence appealing. However, earlier researchers had failed to discover any statistically meaningful relationships between mental tests; since the tests did not correlate with one another, it appeared that they could not be measuring the same thing; that is, they could not all be measuring “intelligence.” (See the Wissler Controversy Hot Topic). Spearman was able to demonstrate that uncorrected correlation coefficients will always underestimate the true degree of the relationships among any set of variables, and that this underestimation is particularly severe when the scores on the tests have a restricted range of values, as was the case with Cattell’s anthropometric tests. Spearman derived a statistical formula to correct for this underestimation. When he applied his corrective procedure to Cattell’s data, he found substantial positive correlations among all the variables measured by the mental tests, and also between the mental tests and other variables that could be considered measures of mental ability. Through an extended formula, he was able to demonstrate that a common source of variance accounted for the correlations among all the mental tests, and he called this the general factor, or g. This finding reinvigorated the idea that intelligent behavior arises from a single metaphorical entity, and it forms the foundation for many present-day theories of human intelligence (Jensen, 1994).
Selected Publications:
Spearman, C. (1904). "General intelligence," objectively determined and measured. American Journal of Psychology, 15, 201-293.
Spearman, C. (1923). The nature of ‘intelligence’ and the principles of cognition (2 nd ed.). London: Macmillan.
Spearman, C. (1927). The abilities of man. London: Macmillan.
Spearman, C. (1930). Autobiography. In C. Murchison (Ed.), A history of psychology in autobiography (Vol. 1, pp. 199-333). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.
Spearman, C., & Jones, L. W. (1950). Human ability. London: Macmillan.
References:
Jensen, A. R. (1994). Spearman, Charles Edward. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Encyclopedia of intelligence (Vol. 1, pp. 1007-1014). New York: Macmillan.
Spearman, C. (1904). "General intelligence," objectively determined and measured. American Journal of Psychology, 15, 201-293.
intelltheory.com
Student of: Wundt
Influenced by: Galton
Students: R. B. Cattell, Wechsler
Influenced: Anastasi, Guilford, Vernon, Burt, Detterman
Time Period: The Great Schools' Influence
Education:
Studied engineering in college
University of Leipzig , Ph.D. in experimental psychology (under Wilhelm Wundt) (1906)
Career:
Published “General Intelligence’ Objectively Determined and Measured” (1904)
University College, London, Reader in Experimental Psychology (1907-1911); Grote Professor of Mind and Logic (successor to William McDougal) (1911-1928); Professor of Psychology (1928-1932) (Succeeded by Cyril Burt)
Numerous honors and awards, including: Fellow of the Royal Society ( Great Britain) and member of the National Academy of Sciences ( U.S.A.)
Major Contributions:
“First systematic psychometrician” and father of classical test theory (Jensen, 1994)
Pioneer of the statistical technique called factor analysis
Discovered a general factor (g) in correlations among mental tests
Definition of Intelligence
“As regards the delicate matter of estimating ‘Intelligence,’ the guiding principle has been not to make any a priori assumptions as to what kind of mental activity may be thus termed with greatest propriety. Provisionally, at any rate, the aim was empirically to examine all the various abilities having any prima facie claims to such title, ascertaining their relations to one another and to other functions (Spearman, 1904, p. 249-250).”
Ideas and Interests
Charles Spearman started his psychology career relatively late in life, beginning his Ph.D. studies at age 34 and accepting his first university position at age 42. Yet, his technical and theoretical contributions to the development of intelligence research as a scientific enterprise cannot be overstated. He was the first to offer a tenable psychometric definition of intelligence, and is therefore considered to be the father of classical test theory (Jensen, 1994). In a famous article, “General Intelligence’ Objectively Determined and Measured” (1904), Spearman proposed the idea that intelligent behavior is generated by a single, unitary quality within the human mind or brain. Spearman derived this theoretical entity, called the general factor, or simply g, through a new statistical technique that analyzed the correlations among a set of variables. This technique, called factor analysis, demonstrated that scores on all mental tests are positively correlated; this offered compelling evidence that all intelligent behavior is derived from one metaphorical pool of mental energy. Although proponents of multiple intelligence theory reject this interpretation, factor analysis remains one of the most important tools in 21 st century intelligence research. Like his predecessors James McKeen Cattell and Francis Galton, Spearman had been a student in William Wundt’s experimental psychology laboratory, and like Cattell and Galton, he found the idea of a single, biologically-based source of human intelligence appealing. However, earlier researchers had failed to discover any statistically meaningful relationships between mental tests; since the tests did not correlate with one another, it appeared that they could not be measuring the same thing; that is, they could not all be measuring “intelligence.” (See the Wissler Controversy Hot Topic). Spearman was able to demonstrate that uncorrected correlation coefficients will always underestimate the true degree of the relationships among any set of variables, and that this underestimation is particularly severe when the scores on the tests have a restricted range of values, as was the case with Cattell’s anthropometric tests. Spearman derived a statistical formula to correct for this underestimation. When he applied his corrective procedure to Cattell’s data, he found substantial positive correlations among all the variables measured by the mental tests, and also between the mental tests and other variables that could be considered measures of mental ability. Through an extended formula, he was able to demonstrate that a common source of variance accounted for the correlations among all the mental tests, and he called this the general factor, or g. This finding reinvigorated the idea that intelligent behavior arises from a single metaphorical entity, and it forms the foundation for many present-day theories of human intelligence (Jensen, 1994).
Selected Publications:
Spearman, C. (1904). "General intelligence," objectively determined and measured. American Journal of Psychology, 15, 201-293.
Spearman, C. (1923). The nature of ‘intelligence’ and the principles of cognition (2 nd ed.). London: Macmillan.
Spearman, C. (1927). The abilities of man. London: Macmillan.
Spearman, C. (1930). Autobiography. In C. Murchison (Ed.), A history of psychology in autobiography (Vol. 1, pp. 199-333). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.
Spearman, C., & Jones, L. W. (1950). Human ability. London: Macmillan.
References:
Jensen, A. R. (1994). Spearman, Charles Edward. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Encyclopedia of intelligence (Vol. 1, pp. 1007-1014). New York: Macmillan.
Spearman, C. (1904). "General intelligence," objectively determined and measured. American Journal of Psychology, 15, 201-293.
intelltheory.com
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